In addition to its antibacterial defenses, lactoferrin performs other functions in the body. All transferrin proteins bind with high affinity to iron (III) ions, but lactoferrin has the highest binding affinity (K D ~ 10 -20 M compared with K D ~ 10 -9 M for transferrin). 4 The ability for lactoferrin to retain iron in a pH far below the biological level of 7.4 makes lactoferrin a more effective tool in the war over iron than transferrin, but less effective as an iron source for the body itself.įigure 2: Comparison of the structures of three iron chelating proteins in the transferrin family: Lactoferrin, transferrin, and ovotransferrin. 4 A pH of this acidity can be found in the body in places such as inflammation sites, cellular vesicles, or the stomach. 3 On the other hand, lactoferrin binds to iron with a much higher affinity, and the ion is not known to be released until pH drops to around 2-3. Transferrin has a lower binding affinity to iron than lactoferrin does, and a slight dip below biological pH can trigger the protein to release its ion. 2 Transferrin, while in some cases able to prevent bacterial infection, is used more efficiently as an iron transport protein. 2 Lactoferrin is a member of the transferrin family, a group of proteins that bind specifically to iron and perform various functions in the body (see figure 2). Left: human protein, lactoferrin.Įnter to the scene lactoferrin, a iron-chelating protein that has an extremely high binding affinity for iron (III). Faecalis siderophore, ferric hydroxamate. 1 As a result of this mutual need, iron wars break out between bacteria and the human body, and each side has used scientific methods to more efficiently acquire this resource.įigure 1: Cartoon depicting the “iron wars” between human and bacterial iron-sequestering proteins. 1 However, humans aren’t the only organisms that need this ion as a nutrient source bacterial species depend on ions like iron to survive. While largely known for its rusting abilities, iron is also the catalyst for numerous metabolic processes, a binding agent in molecules like hemoglobin, and is even speculated to be a contributing ion to the early formation of macromolecules that eventually led to life forms. Wars can be started over metals like gold or silver, but the human body wages an internal war against pathogens on a daily basis over a seemingly insignificant metal: iron (see figure 1). He is next reprising the part for the series, "Secret Invasion", co-starring Samuel L Jackson and Ben Mendelsohn, and scheduled to debut in 2023.\)
Written by David Michelinie and Bob Layton with art by Mark Bright, the story tackled the idea of the highly advanced technology of Iron Man falling into the wrong hands.Ĭheadle has played Rhodes in multiple MCU projects, including "Iron Man 2", "Iron Man 3", "Captain America: Civil War", "Avengers: Infinity War" and "Avengers: Endgame". "Armor Wars" takes its title from the celebrated Marvel Comics storyline that was published in the "Iron Man" comics in 19. However, Marvel is yet to announce an additional cast and direct for the film as well as its release date.
#IRON WARS 2018 SERIES#
Sources told entertainment news website The Hollywood Reporter that the studio was committed to getting the story told the right way and in that process realised that a film was better suited for the project.Ĭheadle and Yassir Lester, who joined the series as the head writer, remain on board the project. "Armor Wars" was announced as a Disney+ original in December 2020 with actor Don Cheadle set to reprise his Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) role of James “Rhodey” Rhodes aka War Machine. Marvel Studios is taking the feature route for its upcoming project "Armor Wars", instead of developing it as a live-action series.
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